Cannabis, a plant as old as civilisation itself, carries the weight of millennia of human history. Originating in the steppes of Central Asia, Cannabis sativa first emerged as a staple of ancient societies before migrating across continents and embedding itself into cultures of ancient China, Viking Europe, and Mughal India. Its story weaves together spirituality, colonialism, rebellion, and commerce; offering a lens through which to view our shifting relationships with nature, medicine, and power.

To understand the centrality of cannabis in Indian culture, we must begin with the Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism. Compiled between 1500 and 500 BCE, these texts revered cannabis — known as bhang — as one of five sacred plants. It was described as a “joy-giver” and “liberator”, celebrated for its ability to dispel fear and anxiety. More than a psychoactive substance, cannabis was a bridge to the divine.

The mythology surrounding the god Shiva exemplifies this connection. According to legend, Shiva, the ascetic god of destruction and regeneration, discovered the rejuvenating properties of cannabis while wandering the Himalayan mountains. He is said to have made the plant his sacred food, earning him the title Lord of Bhang. Ascetics and mystics, emulating Shiva’s devotion, incorporated cannabis into their rituals, using it to achieve transcendental states.

Beyond spirituality, cannabis also played a practical role in ancient Indian society. Ayurvedic texts, written as early as the 3rd century BCE, recommended it for a variety of ailments, including digestive disorders, anxiety, and pain relief. The versatility of the plant — as medicine, spiritual aid, and intoxicant — cemented its place in Indian culture.

When the British East India Company tightened its grip on India in the 18th century, they encountered a society in which cannabis use was deeply ingrained. Workers consumed bhang to endure long hours under the scorching sun, while ascetics smoked ganja as an act of devotion. Even royal courts indulged in cannabis-based edibles like majoon, a sweet infused with cannabis resin.

Alarmed by the prevalence of cannabis, British authorities commissioned the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report in 1894. This exhaustive six-volume study documented the cultivation, trade, and consumption of cannabis across India. The report concluded that moderate cannabis use was largely harmless and culturally significant. “Prohibition,” it warned, “would cause widespread unrest among Hindu and Muslim communities alike.”

Despite the report’s findings, British officials remained ambivalent. Their unease reflected broader Western anxieties about substances associated with colonised peoples. Cannabis, to the British, was both an object of fascination and a symbol of the perceived otherness of Indian society.

Central to cannabis’s migration westward was William Brooke O’Shaughnessy, an Irish physician who arrived in Calcutta in the 1830s. O’Shaughnessy was part of a wave of colonial scientists fascinated by India’s vast repository of botanical knowledge. His encounter with cannabis marked a turning point in its global history.

At the Medical College Hospital in Calcutta, O’Shaughnessy embarked on experiments, meticulously documenting the medicinal properties of cannabis. His research was informed by the plant’s longstanding use in Ayurvedic medicine, as well as his conversations with local healers. He observed cannabis’s efficacy in treating a range of ailments, including seizures, rheumatism, and cholera. His study notes, at times, read like a mix of clinical observation and comedic anecdote. For instance, after administering a dose of Nepalese hash to a dog, he wrote, “The dog became stupid and sleepy, dozing at intervals, starting up, wagging his tail as if extremely content.”

O’Shaughnessy’s most significant discovery was cannabis’ ability to treat infantile convulsions. He administered tinctures to children suffering from severe seizures, often with remarkable success. These findings, published in European medical journals, introduced cannabis to Victorian medicine. By the mid-19th century, cannabis tinctures were being prescribed across the British Empire for everything from migraines to insomnia.

O’Shaughnessy’s work also captured the culinary and cultural applications of cannabis in India. He documented recipes for bhang and majoon, noting their euphoric effects. While he described cannabis intoxication as a “vice”, he acknowledged that its use often inspired cheerfulness, music, and creativity. In doing so, O’Shaughnessy bridged the gap between Eastern traditions and Western science, paving the way for cannabis’s integration into global medicine and culture.

By the 1960s, cannabis had become the emblem of a global counterculture. Hippies and spiritual seekers flocked to India, drawn by its mystical allure and permissive attitudes toward cannabis. In the ghats of Varanasi and the hills of Himachal Pradesh, they shared chillums with sadhus and sampled bhang lassi, blending their newfound practices with anti-establishment philosophies.

For many Westerners, India’s cannabis culture offered an antidote to the materialism of modernity. The plant’s association with spiritual enlightenment resonated deeply with a generation searching for meaning beyond consumerism. Yet this cultural exchange was not without its contradictions. Though India opposed the classification of cannabis in the category of hard drugs during the 1961 Convention on Narcotic Drugs, it eventually buckled under pressure. The Cold War era meant India needed the US as an ally. The 1985 Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act criminalised most forms of cannabis, although bhang remained legal due to its cultural and religious significance. On the other hand, Western nations were growing more accepting. 

Today, cannabis is at the centre of a booming global industry, valued in billions of dollars. Legalisation efforts in the United States and Europe have sparked innovation in cannabis products, from CBD oils to gourmet edibles. Yet the industry’s origins — its spiritual and medicinal lineage — are often obscured.

India, too, is witnessing a resurgence of interest in cannabis, particularly in its medicinal uses. Ayurvedic practitioners are exploring the therapeutic potential of cannabis, while activists campaign for its legalisation. Despite its criminalised status, cannabis remains deeply embedded in Indian culture. As the world grapples with questions of legalisation and regulation, it is worth remembering the plant’s complex history. Cannabis is more than a drug or a commodity. It is a symbol of humanity’s enduring quest for connection — to the divine, to one another, and to the natural world.

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